Wei dynasty

Wei dynasty, (386–534/535 ce), the longest-lived and most powerful of the northern Chinese dynasties that existed before the reunification of China under the Sui and Tang dynasties.

The Wei dynasty was founded by Tabgatch (Tuoba) tribesmen who, like many of the nomads inhabiting the frontiers of northern China, were of uncertain origin. Their language was basically Turkic, and scholars presume that their ancestry can be traced to proto-Turkic, proto-Mongol, or Xiongnu peoples. In any case, the Tuoba were non-Han Chinese, and their conquests of the small, weak North China states in the late 4th century were clearly regarded as foreign invasions. After the takeover of Shanxi province, the Tuoba adopted the ancient name of Wei for their kingdom and established their capital at Pingcheng (present-day Datong), close to their tribal homeland. They soon expanded into Hebei and Henan and occupied parts of Shaanxi, Manchuria (Northeast China), and Gansu. During this expansionist period, the Bei Wei had to defend their territories against attacks from other northern nomads, and, after many battles, the Wei launched a large-scale offensive against nomads from Outer Mongolia in 429. By 439, the Bei Wei had secured their territories from attack and unified all of North China.

Although the Wei possessed enormous military prowess, nothing in the culture of their nomadic existence prepared them for the exigencies of empire rule. Having no administrative structure, they were forced to rely on Chinese civil servants to help govern their possessions. One of the earliest and greatest Chinese advisers at the Wei court was Cui Hao (381–450), who introduced Chinese administrative methods and the penal code to the Wei. As the Wei economy started to depend more and more on farming and less on herding and raiding, the lifestyle of the tribesmen became more sedentary. And then, as happened so often in Chinese history, the conquerors became conquered by the appeal of Chinese culture and society. The new rulers were attracted by Chinese goods and products and found themselves developing a taste for the luxury that characterized Chinese upper classes. They were impressed by the aristocratic style and aura of distinction of Chinese nobles. Thus, the prestige of Chinese culture, as well as the change in economic base and the influence of Buddhism, transformed the nomad way of life of the Tuoba tribesmen.

By 495, the Wei, pursuing an active policy of sinicization, transferred their capital to the ancient Chinese city of Luoyang. This signaled the rapid conversion of the Wei governing classes to Chinese manners and customs. Marriages between Tuoba and Chinese aristocracy were encouraged, while intermarriages also increased among the lower classes. Many families, including the imperial house, adopted Chinese surnames. There was even an effort at rewriting history, as the Wei dynasty tried to discredit and disown anything relating to their non-Han Chinese origins. Eventually the dynasty proscribed Tuoba language and dress.

This sinicization policy presented problems that would eventually lead to the downfall of the empire. While the upper classes of the Bei Wei became assimilated to Chinese lifestyle, the lower classes, particularly those that lived close to the frontier, and the military, responsible for the conquests in the first place, still adhered to their nomadic, tribalistic ways of life. As a result, these classes became increasingly alienated from their rulers.

The Wei dynasty was able to improve and stabilize the economy of their empire. With the unification of the north, the Wei controlled the leading oases and trading centres that served the trade routes to Central Asia. There was much trade between southern and northern China as well. But the most important change effected by the Wei dynasty was in the sphere of land reform. After the wars of conquest, much of the native population fled to the south, leaving large areas of arable land unused. The Wei responded by forcing large-scale deportations of peasants. These massive relocations served several purposes—the peasants were able to reclaim otherwise unused land, thereby increasing agricultural output; the dynasty was able to populate the deserted areas around Pingcheng and Shanxi; the peasants were able to possess their own plots of land; the deportations assisted in the spread of Chinese culture throughout the empire; and finally, by transporting the peasants and serfs the Wei dynasty could break the power of the large landed estates so dependent on their serf populations. The impact of this population transfer was enormous. During the reign of Daowudi (386–409) alone, about 460,000 people were deported. In 486 the Wei established a land reform system that would be imitated by later Chinese dynasties. In this system, all land was owned by the emperor, who then allotted agricultural holdings to every male adult. Upon the landholder’s death, part of the holdings reverted to the emperor, who then reassigned it. This assured a reasonably equitable distribution of land, as well as government control of the large estates that heretofore had been virtually autonomous. There were some exceptions made to this system, but on the whole it served the purpose for which it was intended.

The Wei rulers were great patrons of Buddhism. This religion’s popularity in the north was due to its universalist ethics as opposed to the particularism of Confucianism or Daoism. Fostering this religion helped assimilate the Tuoba into Chinese culture. Buddhism held a great appeal for the Wei rulers, as it gave their leadership a legitimate base in a multiethnic society. They fostered Buddhism as a state religion, although the dynasty took particular care to control the religious hierarchy, trying to avoid any church-state conflicts. The Wei did this by creating a clerical bureaucracy along the same lines as a civil bureaucracy, appointing a chief monk who supervised the other monks. This was also done to prevent the monasteries from becoming a refuge for those trying to escape taxes or labour obligations imposed by the monarchy. But this espousal of Buddhism did not ease all religious conflicts. The enormous wealth and huge tracts of lands acquired by Buddhist monasteries and clergy posed a threat to the state, support of these institutions drained the economy and deprived the state of tax revenues, and the thousands of retainers required by the monasteries left a huge infrastructure for the state to support. The native Chinese felt that Buddhist doctrines, with the espousal of celibacy and monastic life, conflicted with their views of the sacredness of family life. A reaction set in.

During the reign of emperor Taiwudi (423–452) and his adviser Cui Hao, Daoism was sponsored. The initial restrictions placed on Buddhist monasteries by the Wei rulers in 438 culminated in full-scale persecution from 446 to 452. All Buddhist monks and nuns were ordered executed; Buddhist art, architecture, and books were destroyed. With a change of rulers, the persecution ended, and the new emperor made generous amends. Buddhism once again became a sort of state religion. Once the capital was moved to Luoyang, Buddhist fervour increased, and Luoyang became the great centre of Buddhism in the north. Many monasteries were built with a lavish display of wealth.

The greatest cultural contribution of the Wei dynasty was in Buddhist art. This art is best represented in the sculptures of the cliff grottoes at Yungang (near Datong), and, after 495, in the cave temples of Longmen (near Luoyang); each complex has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage site (in 2001 and 2000, respectively). The statuary in these places shows Hellenistic naturalism and Indian sensuality influencing the linearity of Chinese art, and this eclectic style influenced not only the art of China but also that of Korea and Japan. The Wei were also great builders, and both Chinese capitals were enlarged and fortified under their rule. Luoyang especially was the site of many changes and improvements and much sumptuous building.

Unfortunately, many of the greatest strengths of the empire were to prove its undoing. While adoption of Chinese culture made the rulers more palatable to their subjects, some of the nomadic Tuoba groups resisted assimilation (although eventually the Tuoba lost their separate identities and were absorbed into the general North China population), contributing to the instability of the empire. The armies, whose victories had provided the backbone of the empire, felt that they were being shunted aside in favour of the Chinese they had subjugated. The outrageously extravagant expenditures and the completely sinicized lifestyle of the empress Hu led to revolts. A military uprising in 523 was followed by civil war for another 10 years. The empress Hu had the emperor Xiaomingdi assassinated (528) and put her child on the throne. Not strong enough to quell the revolts, both she and her son were drowned in the Huang He (Yellow River) and 2,000 courtiers were murdered, signifying the end (534 or 535) of the Wei dynasty. The empire was then split between two rival army factions, who divided it into the short-lived Dong (Eastern) Wei and Xi (Western) Wei empires. But the strength of the political, economic, and social achievements of the Wei eased greatly the later reunification of northern and southern China.