The Peninsular War and the Congress of Erfurt, 1808

French troops had installed themselves in Burgos, Pamplona, and Barcelona by the end of February 1808. Murat left Burgos for Madrid on March 15, but his approach provoked riots in the capital, which led to Godoy’s imprisonment and to the enforced abdication of Charles IV in favour of his son, Ferdinand VII, on March 19, four days before Murat’s arrival. Charles and Ferdinand were summoned to Bayonne, where on May 10 Napoleon obliged them to resign the kingdom to his brother Joseph. Meanwhile more serious rioting in Madrid (May 2) was followed by nationalist insurrections throughout Spain. Joseph entered Madrid on July 20 but soon had to retire beyond the Ebro. The ensuing operations came to be known as the Peninsular War.

From the first the war in Spain affected France’s relations with the eastern powers. The Franco-Russian entente was disliked in Russian governing circles, and they felt further dissatisfaction at Napoleon’s treatment of Prussia and at his proposals for the division of Turkish territories. Napoleon was now anxious to enlist Russian support to guard against Austrian and German moves while the bulk of his forces were engaged in Spain. Having concluded a convention with Prussia whereby the French were to evacuate Prussian territory except certain strong points on the Oder (September 8), Napoleon on September 27, 1808, met Alexander at Erfurt. His concessions failed to impress Alexander, who refused to put any effective pressure on Austria. The Treaty of Erfurt (October 12) renewed the Tilsit alliance, and Napoleon could now expect to be free to concentrate on Spain. The Grande Armée was dissolved, with just two corps remaining in Germany under Davout.

When Napoleon, at Vitoria, on November 6, 1808, took command of the 70,000 French in Spain north of the Ebro, the only solidly constituted force opposing him was that of the 20,000 British under Sir John Moore. Moore had been reinforced by 13,000 infantry disembarked at La Coruña on October 26, but within a month Napoleon had occupied Madrid. Moore resolved (December 6) to assist the Spanish by moving with 26,000 men against the communications of the still dispersed French forces. On December 23 he received news of a French concentration against him and next day he began his retreat towards La Coruña. A force of 20,000 French under Soult was in pursuit of the British, and Moore, his transport ships still en route, established a defensive perimeter at La Coruña on January 14, 1809. A French attack on January 16 was repulsed with heavy losses, but Moore was mortally wounded in the fighting. The British completed their evacuation on January 18. Having given up his direction of operations on January 3, Napoleon left Valladolid for Paris a fortnight later, to face the danger from Austria. His brief experience of Spanish warfare had shown him some of its difficulties, and he left Spain unsubdued, but he was not prepared to abandon his enterprise.

Effects of economic warfare

The opening of Spain, Portugal, and South America to British trade helped to offset the drop in Great Britain’s exports to Europe. Whereas Great Britain’s exports to northern Europe in “real” (as opposed to official) values fell from £16,600,000 in 1805 to £5,400,000 in 1808 and recovered only to £14,500,000 in 1809, sales to the Americas outside the United States for the same years rose from £8,500,000 to £18,100,000 and to £19,800,000. Much of the increase in South American business was financed by credit, and the default of the Spanish colonies was among the causes of the economic crisis of 1811.

A parallel development in shipments to the Mediterranean offset the damage done by U.S. Pres. Thomas Jefferson’s measures in North America. While shipments to the United States fell by £6,300,000 between 1805 and 1808, those to the Mediterranean grew fourfold to £6,800,000. The effect of Embargo Act against British commerce was greatly eased in 1809, for while the Non-Intercourse Act of March 1809 maintained the prohibitions on trade with belligerents, it did not include the Iberian peninsula and Scandinavia, and U.S. ships were able to make their way to nonneutral ports. British exports to the United States had fallen to £5,300,000 in 1808; for 1809 they were £7,460,000.

The Continental blockade, however, was already capable of creating substantial strategic difficulties for Great Britain. Imports of grain from Europe sank from 114,000 tons in 1807 to 14,000 tons in 1808, and the price of wheat increased nearly 60 percent between 1807 and 1810. It is in this context that the shortsightedness of Napoleon’s determinedly mercantilist policy in selling surplus French and allied corn in 1809 and 1810 is most striking. The effects of the blockade were keenly felt in France and the Continental states as well as in Great Britain. European consumers had food enough but missed amenities such as coffee and sugar, and cotton manufacturers soon found themselves cut off from their raw materials as well as from competition. In addition, capital was lacking to create new enterprises to offset the absence of British manufactures. French ports and their merchants were hard hit, and difficulties of transportation arose from the greatly increased use of land routes for Continental trade. Between 1806 and 1808, when British exports fell by approximately 13 percent, those of the French empire declined by 27 percent to remain at the same level in 1809, when the volume of British foreign trade rose by more than 33 percent. French customs receipts, 60,600,000 francs in 1807, were only 11,600,000 in 1809.

The French system of licenses

To increase revenue and to dispose of surplus agricultural production, Napoleon in April 1809 issued licenses as a temporary measure, permitting the export of alcohol and foodstuffs in exchange for wood, flax, iron, quinine, or cash. The concessions were so limited, however, that the licenses taken up during the next 14 months represented only 3 percent of French exports for 1809. A decree of July 25, 1810, imposed the license system on all foreign trade, and one of August 5 laid duties of 40–50 percent on colonial goods. The entry of colonial goods was conditional on the export of goods of at least equivalent value. British manufactures, however, could not be brought in. Finally, the decree of Fontainebleau of October 10, 1810, prescribed sentences of ten years’ imprisonment and branding for the smuggling of British manufactures and up to four years for the importation of unlicensed colonial goods. All goods illegally imported were subject to confiscation; colonial produce was to be sold by the state and manufactured goods were to be publicly destroyed. These measures precipitated the crisis of 1811 on the Continent.

Through the decrees of 1810 the French state, in effect, took over the contraband trade, whose costs were commuted into the new customs tariffs. Licenses given under the decree of July 25 were restricted at first to trade in French ships, and the modest trade permitted could hardly offset the overall effects of the Continental System. Customs receipts increased to nearly 106,000,000 francs between August 1810 and December 1811. By November 25, 1811, however, only 494 of the new licenses had been issued to cover imports worth 27,000,000 francs and exports worth 45,000,000. Many “exports” were dummies, later jettisoned, to warrant the landing of imports.

The annexations of 1809–10

Apart from the cessions imposed upon defeated Austria under the peace of Vienna, Napoleon extended the frontiers of the French empire in 1809–10 in order to make his Continental System more effective. On May 17, 1809, he annexed what had been left of the Papal States. On July 6 Pius VII, who had excommunicated Napoleon, was taken from Rome as a prisoner. On January 3, 1810, Zeeland was annexed and the Dutch provinces between the Scheldt and the Rhine were occupied, before the outright annexation of Holland on July 9. Finally, in December 1810 Napoleon annexed not only Valais but also all northwestern Germany between the Low Countries and the western Baltic, including Hamburg, Bremen, Lübeck, part of Berg, part of Westphalia, Arenberg, Salm and—most controversially, because its ruling dynasty was closely connected with Russia—Oldenburg.