Satanism

Satanism, the worship or veneration of Satan, a figure from Christian belief who is also commonly known as the Devil or Lucifer. For most of Christian history, accusations that groups have been deliberately worshipping the Devil have been spurious, with little or no basis in reality. However, from at least the 20th century, various new religions have emerged whose followers openly identify as Satanists or Luciferians. Their reasons for doing so, along with the nature of their beliefs and practices, vary considerably.

Satanism as an accusation

Satan as a character and the origins of “devil worship”

Biblical texts do not provide Satan with a backstory, but by the 3rd or 4th century a general biography of the character had gained broad acceptance in Christian communities. By that point, Satan was being presented as an angel who had rebelled against God. He was also regarded as being chief of the demons—entities that Christians often maintained were behind the gods and goddesses worshipped by non-Abrahamic religions. By at least the 4th century, Christians were regularly terming these non-Abrahamic traditions pagan, although they rarely thought the followers of these religions were deliberately venerating Satan.

In much of Europe, non-Abrahamic religions were no longer a serious rival to Christianity by the High Middle Ages, at which point it became common for Christians to accuse other groups of actively worshipping the Devil. These accusations were made against Jews as well as followers of Christian traditions that the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches regarded as heretical, such as the Paulicians, Bogomils, Cathari, and Waldenses. Typically, it was alleged that these groups worshipped Satan in nocturnal rituals during which they engaged in incestuous sexual orgies and sacrificed children. Many of these claims repeated those that suspicious Romans had made against Christians themselves in the early centuries of the Common Era.

Satanism and its association with witchcraft

During the early modern period, accusations of Devil worship became closely intertwined with accusations of witchcraft. While medieval witches had been regarded primarily as practitioners of maleficium, or supernaturally induced harm, in the early modern imagination witches were often believed to attend a witches’ sabbath where they proclaimed their allegiance to the Devil and engaged in cannibalistic infanticide. Across Christendom, tens of thousands of people were accused of being witches in this period and often were tortured to extract a confession. Between 40,000 and 60,000 were executed, most of them women.

Although these witch trials declined in the 18th century, fears about Devil worship persisted in new forms. Accusations of Satanism were, for instance, integrated into conspiracy theories surrounding Freemasonry from the 19th century onward. Ideas about active Satanist groups were also promoted through fiction, the most influential example of which was Là-bas (1891; Down There), a novel by French writer Joris-Karl Huysmans. Works like Là-bas helped to cement the connection between Satanism and the black mass, a ritual deliberately inverting the Roman Catholic mass and often involving a naked woman serving as an altar. New media further promoted narratives about Satanist groups during the 20th century, for instance through the 1960s cinematic adaptations of novels like Dennis Wheatley’s The Devil Rides Out and Ira Levin’s Rosemary’s Baby.

Modern religious Satanism

The 20th century saw the appearance of various new religions whose practitioners called themselves Satanists or Luciferians, although their understanding of Satan or Lucifer as a figure varied radically. Some, for instance, have insisted that they venerate Lucifer, an entity they maintain is separate from Satan, while others regard the two names as synonyms for the same being. Modern religious Satanists can broadly be divided into two camps: the atheists or rationalists, for whom Satan/Lucifer is a symbol of values they wish to champion, and the supernaturalists, who perceive Satan/Lucifer as a being that literally exists and whom they wish to worship.

Religious Satanism owes much to the increasingly sympathetic reassessment of Satan in the work of Romantic writers and artists during the early 19th century. For the likes of Percy Bysshe Shelley, Lord Byron, and Victor Hugo, Satan was a heroic rebel who challenged arbitrary authority, and in this vein he was sometimes adopted as a symbol by leftist and anticlerical groups (and many decades later by certain rock musicians). This reassessment fed into the emergence of several religious groups that actively venerated Satan or Lucifer during the first half of the 20th century, although such groups remained small and marginal even within occult circles.

The first major form of modern religious Satanism was the Church of Satan, founded in San Francisco by Anton LaVey in 1966. LaVey also promoted his ideas through books, most notably The Satanic Bible (1969). LaVeyan Satanism was formally atheistic, presenting Satan not as a real being but as a symbol of humanity’s animal nature. It nevertheless accepted certain supernaturalist ideas, namely a belief in magic, with LaVeyan Satanists performing rituals with magical intent. LaVey’s beliefs were informed by right-wing libertarian principles and emphasized the idea that Satanists should regard themselves as an elite set apart from the “herd” of ordinary humanity.

An alternative interpretation of religious Satanism was offered by the Satanic Temple (TST), established in the United States in 2012. While sharing the Church of Satan’s claim that Satan does not literally exist, TST rejected LaVey’s right-libertarian philosophy in favour of a left-leaning progressive one. TST became well-known for stunts in defense of legal abortion access and same-sex marriage, consciously challenging the hegemonic role of Christianity in much of American society. Its members outlined a cohesive worldview emphasizing bodily autonomy and the embrace of compassion, empathy, and reason as well as performing rituals to mark major events in a person’s life or to celebrate rebellion against unjust authority.

In contrast to these atheistic groups, there have also been modern Satanists who regard Satan or Lucifer as having a literal existence. One of the first organized groups to take this stance, the Temple of Set, was formed by Michael Aquino and other former members of LaVey’s Church in 1975. Unlike the Church of Satan, Aquino’s Temple maintained that Satan’s real identity was Set, a god drawn from the pantheon of ancient Egypt, thus shifting the organization away from its Satanic origins and toward modern Paganism. By the end of the 20th century, increasing numbers of people were considering themselves to be theistic Satanists. These individuals were typically solitary practitioners, communicating with one another through the Internet, rather than members of a single church.

While organizations like the Church of Satan and the Satanic Temple have embraced Satanism’s transgressive imagery without endorsing criminal activities, other groups have moved into more radical territory. The best-known example is the Order of Nine Angles, which emerged in Britain during the 1970s. Although its occult teachings place comparatively little emphasis on Satan himself, the group describes itself as promoting “traditional Satanism.” Endorsing human sacrifice, the Order has called on its followers to join extreme political groups to further the breakdown of society. While a tiny movement in its early decades, the Internet allowed the Order to gain international influence among extreme right-wing networks in the 21st century.

There are also individuals and small groups, often of adolescents, who have declared themselves Satanists to cultivate a transgressive or rebellious image. These individuals have sometimes engaged in criminal behaviour, including vandalizing churches, desecrating graves, and mutilating or killing animals. In a few rare instances, like that of the American serial killer Richard Ramirez and the Italian Beasts of Satan group, these self-professed Satanists have also committed murder.