Iron Pillar of Delhi

Iron Pillar of Delhi, pillar rising above the central courtyard of the Qūwat-ul-Islām mosque in the Quṭb Mīnār complex in Mehrauli, Delhi, that is famous for being relatively rust-free despite having been created more than 1,600 years ago, about 400 ce. The six-ton pillar was made during the Gupta period, likely at Udayagiri in what is now the state of Madhya Pradesh. Other accounts, however, mention Mathura as the likely place where the Iron Pillar originally stood. At the time it was first erected the decorative seven-part capital that tops the column may have held a figure of Garuda, a bird in Hindu mythology that bore the god Vishnu in the sky. Some researchers believe that the Iron Pillar was moved from Udayagiri to Delhi on the orders of the sultan Iltutmish in the 13th century. Others believe that it was moved to a temple in Lal Kot, Delhi, by the Tomara king Anangapala in 1050 and was moved to its current position near the mosque about 1191. Originally made for a temple of Vishnu, the pillar currently adorns the grounds of the first mosque on the Indian subcontinent and is considered one of the most important objects in Indian history.

The pillar measures a total of 23.5 feet (7.2 meters) tall, counting the portion that is belowground. The cylindrical portion above ground level measures 17 feet (5.2 meters) from a stone platform, likely added in 1871 or 1872. This cylindrical portion tapers from a diameter of 16.7 inches (42 cm) at the bottom (above ground level) to a diameter of 11.85 inches (30 cm) just under the decorative capital. The bottom 2 feet (0.6 meters) of the 17-foot cylindrical portion has a rough surface with hammer marks. Evidence suggests that the pillar was initially buried deeper than it is at present. One piece of evidence in support of this is the rough portion visible at the bottom of the pillar. It has been argued that the rough texture is not an unintended defect but instead was designed to help the pillar grip to the ground, suggesting that this portion was originally underground. The base of the pillar appears to be flat, with eight small projections spaced evenly around the circumference that jut into a sheet of lead. The lead sheet lies on top of a dressed stone slab on the original floor of the temple.

Sanskrit inscriptions appear in several places on the pillar. The oldest is a six-line engraving 7 feet (2 meters) above the platform. It states that the pillar was created for a temple to Vishnu, at the order of a king with the name Chandra. This may be King Chandragupta II, but the identity is uncertain. A later inscription states that “in Samvat 1109 [1052–53 ce] Ang Pal [founded] Dehali,” suggesting the involvement of the Tomara king Anangapala.

The pillar has been studied by a number of metallurgists, the initial analysis having been completed in 1912. The artifact was extensively studied by metallurgist Ramamurthy Balasubramaniam (1961–2009), who was a professor of materials and metallurgical engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur. In 2005 he published the book Story of the Delhi Iron Pillar, which examines the history, fabrication, and composition of the pillar. The artifact consists largely of iron, with small amounts of phosphorus (0.25 percent), carbon (0.15 percent), manganese (0.05 percent), nickel (0.05 percent), silicon (0.05 percent), copper (0.03 percent), nitrogen (0.02 percent), and sulfur (0.005 percent). The pillar was likely created in a horizontal position, using the forge welding technique. This method involved using intense heat to combine lumps of iron weighing 40–50 pounds (18–23 kilograms) apiece. The capital was constructed from seven individual parts. They were fitted over a hollow cylinder that was then inserted into the body of the pillar.

Although many believe that the lack of rust on the pillar is a mystery, scientists have several theories that try to explain this phenomenon. These can be divided into two main categories. First, there is a climatic explanation: Delhi’s relative humidity is under 70 percent for most of the year, which is consistent with low levels of rust. However, the weather data on which this climatic information is based were collected in a short span of time (from 1930 to 1960), which is inadequate for determining climatic conditions over the vast span of the pillar’s existence. In addition, the climate of the original location should also be considered. After nearly a decade of self-funded study, Balasubramaniam put forth a second theory, based on chemistry. As the pillar ages and rusts, chemical changes involving phosphates create a thin rust-protective iron hydrogen phosphate hydrate that coats the surface of the pillar. The phosphorus in the iron allows these reactions to occur. Ancient Indians were excellent ironsmiths, and Balasubramaniam claimed that the pillar’s creators understood the connection between phosphorus content and limited rusting. He believed that they deliberately chose iron ore with a high phosphorus content. The pillar’s properties may serve as a model for the future development of corrosion-resistant iron.