atomic weight

atomic weight, ratio of the average mass of a chemical element’s atoms to some standard. Since 1961 the standard unit of atomic mass has been one-twelfth the mass of an atom of the isotope carbon-12. An isotope is one of two or more species of atoms of the same chemical element that have different atomic mass numbers (protons + neutrons). The atomic weight of helium is 4.002602, the average that reflects the typical ratio of natural abundances of its isotopes. Atomic weight is measured in atomic mass units (amu), also called daltons. See below for a list of chemical elements and their atomic weights.

The concept of atomic weight is fundamental to chemistry, because most chemical reactions take place in accordance with simple numerical relationships among atoms. Since it is almost always impossible to count the atoms involved directly, chemists measure reactants and products by weighing and reach their conclusions through calculations involving atomic weights. The quest to determine the atomic weights of elements occupied the greatest chemists of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Their careful experimental work became the key to chemical science and technology.

Reliable values for atomic weights serve an important purpose in a quite different way when chemical commodities are bought and sold on the basis of the content of one or more specified constituents. The ores of expensive metals such as chromium or tantalum and the industrial chemical soda ash are examples. The content of the specified constituent must be determined by quantitative analysis. The computed worth of the material depends on the atomic weights used in the calculations.

The original standard of atomic weight, established in the 19th century, was hydrogen, with a value of 1. From about 1900 until 1961, oxygen was used as the reference standard, with an assigned value of 16. The unit of atomic mass was thereby defined as 1/16 the mass of an oxygen atom. In 1929 it was discovered that natural oxygen contains small amounts of two isotopes slightly heavier than the most abundant one and that the number 16 represented a weighted average of the three isotopic forms of oxygen as they occur in nature. This situation was considered undesirable for several reasons, and, since it is possible to determine the relative masses of the atoms of individual isotopic species, a second scale was soon established with 16 as the value of the principal isotope of oxygen rather than the value of the natural mixture. This second scale, preferred by physicists, came to be known as the physical scale, and the earlier scale continued in use as the chemical scale, favoured by chemists, who generally worked with the natural isotopic mixtures rather than the pure isotopes.

Although the two scales differed only slightly, the ratio between them could not be fixed exactly, because of the slight variations in the isotopic composition of natural oxygen from different sources. It was also considered undesirable to have two different but closely related scales dealing with the same quantities. For both of these reasons, chemists and physicists established a new scale in 1961. This scale, based on carbon-12, required only minimal changes in the values that had been used for chemical atomic weights.

Since samples of elements found in nature contain mixtures of isotopes of different atomic weights, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) began publishing atomic weights with uncertainties. The first element to receive an uncertainty in its atomic weight was sulfur in 1951. By 2007, 18 elements had associated uncertainties, and in 2009, IUPAC began publishing ranges for the atomic weight of some elements. For example, the atomic weight of carbon is given as [12.0096, 12.0116].

The table provides a list of chemical elements and their atomic weights.